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//In his article "The Multiple Menu Model for Developing Differentiated Curriculum for the Gifted and Talented," Joseph Renzulli explains that the Multiple Menu Model arose from a blend of educational theories, including work from Bruner (1960, 1966), Passow (1982), Ward (1961), Phenix (1964), Gagne and Briggs (1979), Kaplan (1986), Ausubel (1968), Bandura (1977), and Bloom (1954) (p. 301). Additionally, Renzulli references the work of Whitehead (1929) and James (1885). This section breaks down the basic components of each theorists' concepts that influenced the Multiple Menu Model.//

Jerome Bruner
 1960: Bruner published //The Process of Education//, in which he described kids as individuals capable of actively problem-solving tougher material. He stressed the importance to look past simply teaching facts and focus on teaching the structure and relationships of learning as well. He emphasized the importance of building on curriculum, so that each new year strengthens and deepens one's understanding of the presented curriculum. Bruner also explained that motivation for learning should be based as much on interest as possible. Renzulli uses this to explain that students can use entry level knowledge to help them understand most areas of understanding.

1966: In //Toward a Theory of Instruction//, Bruner describes education as a "process of knowledge-getting. Knowing is a process not a product" (p. 72). He explains that we do not teach simply to have students regurgitate facts, but to help students develop into active thinkers in a manner that professionals in the field would. Renzulli echoes this in looking back at his goals of the Multiple Menu Model: "I am not as concerned with the issue of knowledge-as product as I am with the process objectives that have broader transfer value, such as application, appreciation, self-actualization, and improved cognitive structures. In other words, this model views representative topics as vehicles for process development" (1988, p. 301).

A. Harry Passow
1982: The Leadership Training Institute on the Gifted and Talented released //Differentiated Curricula for the gifted/talented//. In this, Passow and the rest of the team came up with seven principles for curriculum differentiation: > > > > > > Renzulli agrees with the list of principles for curriculum differentiation and indicates that most theorists and educators are on board with these ideas (1988, p. 298).
 * 1) The content of curricula for gifted students should focus on and be organized to include more elaborate, complex, and in-depth study of major ideas, problems, and themes that integrate knowledge within and across systems of thought.
 * 1) Curricula for gifted students should allow for the development and application of productive thinking skills to enable students to reconceptualize existing knowledge and/or generate new knowledge.
 * 1) Curricula for gifted students should enable them to explore constantly changing knowledge and information and develop the attitude that knowledge is worth pursuing in an open world.
 * 1) Curricula for gifted students should encourage exposure to, selection, and use of appropriate and specialized resources.
 * 1) Curricula for gifted students should promote self-initiated and self-directed learning and growth.
 * 1) Curricula for gifted students should provide for the development of self-understanding and the understanding of one's relationship to persons, societal institutions, nature, and culture.
 * 1) Evaluations of curricula for gifted students should be conducted in accordance with the previously stated principles, stressing higher level thinking skills, creativity, and excellence in performance and products (Berger, n.d.).

Virgil Ward
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">1961: Ward wrote //Education for the Gifted: An Axiomatic Approach//, in which he emphasized the need for differential education for the gifted. Ward explains that gifted education "should emphasize enduring methods and sources of learning, as opposed to a terminal emphasis upon present states of knowledge" (p. 156). Ward also stresses education as an ongoing process, rather than focusing on teaching purely facts. Renzulli uses Ward's theories to stress the important of enduring understandings or concepts that help us better understand various subjects or topics.

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Philip Phenix
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">1964: In his book //Realms of Meaning//, Phenix describes six realms of meaning or "basic competencies that general education should develop in every person" (p. 8). These realms include symbolics, empirics, esthetics, synnoetics, ethics, and synoptics. In other words, these realms of meaning encapsulate all curriculum that can be taught in schools. Thus, curriculum should clearly and efficiently represent the various realms of meaning or competencies. Renzulli uses this to explain that " <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">it is not economical or feasible to cover an extensive list of selections if the concept can be dealt with through one or a few representative literary selections" (1988, p. 301).

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Robert Gagne and Leslie Briggs
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">1979: Gagne and Briggs wrote //Principles of Instructional Design//, in which they explained that instructional events are connected to specific learning outcomes. They expressed that educational goals include intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, verbal information, motor skills, and lattitudes. These goals, or learning outcomes, can be achieved in various instructional events, such as: gaining attention, informing the learner of the objective, stimulating recall or prerequisites, learnings, eliciting performance, providing feedback about performance correctness, assessing performance, and enhancing retention and transfer. Gagne and Briggs' design supported the development of Renzulli's order of the Instructional Sequence Menu and the strategies used in the Knowledge Menu (1988, p. 307).

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Sandra Kaplan
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">1986: Sandra wrote an article entitled "The Grid: A Model to Construct Differentiated Curriculum for the Gifted," which described a tool used to create differentiated curriculum for heterogeneous and homogeneous groupings of students. This can be used with another core curriculum or as the core curriculum, and can be used for units or individual lessons (p. 247). To start, it is suggested to start with a theme or universal concept. The content should correspond with the theme, allow for multidisciplinary use, and correlate with students' needs, interests, and abilities. Process skills or thinking skills are also identified, and various options for the product should be offered. Additionally, the affective aspect of the student is also integral to this model, and students' attitudes and values become incorporated in the curriculum. Renzulli's use of this model in the Multiple Menu Model is the importance of including "process objectives that have broader transfer value. such as application, appreciation, self-actualization, and improved cognitive structures. In other words, this [Multiple Menu] model views representative topics as vehicles for process development" (1988, p. 301).

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">David Ausubel
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">1968: In Ausubel's work, including //Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View//, he expresses his ideas that there is an order and structure to cognitive thought and ideas. Thus, he explains that "it is largely by strengthening relevant aspects of cognitive structure that new learning and retention can be facilitated" (p. 128). We can better understand and retain information when it is supported by similar ideas. When we don't have ideas grouped together or there is a lack of connection to a broader concept, information can be more easily forgotten. Ausubel's theories partnered with the organizational structures of Gagne and Briggs were used in designing the Instructional Sequence Menu within the Multiple Menu Model.

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Albert Bandura
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">1977: In his article "Self Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change," Bandura explains the effects of self-efficacy, or believing whether or not one can capably perform in order to succeed or obtain a goal. Bandura states that "cognitive processes mediate change but that cognitive events are induced and altered most readily by experience of mastery arising from effective performance" (p. 191). Renzulli integrates these thoughts in his last goal for the Multiple Menu Model: "the development of self-actualization" (1988, p. 302).

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Benjamin Bloom
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">1954: In Bloom's first handbook, //Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain//, Bloom and his colleagues discuss the cognitive educational objectives we now commonly refer to as "Bloom's Taxonomy." In the taxonomy, there are six thinking processes, ranked from lowest to higher order, including: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In Renzulli's Multiple Menu Model, he restructures the purpose of the "application" order, stating that "I have always thought [application] to be a product or outcome of of the other processes listed in the Taxonomy" (1988, p. 301).

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Alfred North Whitehead
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">1929: In Whitehead's collection of essays, //Aims of Education//, he included an essay entitled "The Rhythm of Learning." In this essay, he describes the was individuals naturally learn by explaining three major stages or rhythms: romance, precision, and generalization. In the romance stage, individuals are drawn to a topic or subject and start to explore it. The precision stage is built upon the romance stage and adds the acquiring of more knowledge in the topic or subject of interest. Finally, generalization takes what has been learn and applies it, still relying and building on the romance or love of the subject. This romance of the subject or topic merges with Renzulli's belief to have students involved and passionate with the subjects they are covering.

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">William James
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">1885: In "On the Functions of Cognition," James describes his theory of knowledge, which consists of three levels of knowing: knowledge-of, knowledge-about (or knowledge-that), and knowledge-how. Knowledge-of is a basic awareness level of knowing, and is associated with being able to recall basic information. With knowledge-about, the individual can do more than recall - they can also understand the knowledge. This is where an understanding of skills and concepts of the material are gained. Finally, in knowledge-how, the knowledge is applied and used to create new areas of knowledge. Merged with the rhythms of learning provided by Whitehead, Renzulli uses James's work to underpin his theories of knowing in the Multiple Menu Model.

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